Energy Use Efficiency and Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Almond Production: Evidence from Konya Province, Türkiye

This study aimed to determine the energy efficiency in almond production in Türkiye, the structure of energy inputs, and the greenhouse gas (GHG) implications, and to evaluate the sustainability of the production system and identify areas for improvement. This study was conducted in Konya Province, one of the most important almond-growing regions in Türkiye; data were obtained from primary sources through face-to-face surveys of 50 producers in Ereğli during the 2025 season. The energy inputs and outputs were calculated using coefficients, and GHG emissions were estimated using emission factors, thereby enabling assessment of the main energy indicators, such as energy use efficiency (EUE), specific energy (SE), energy productivity (EP), and net energy (NE). The results of the study showed that the total energy input and total output were 36,081.25 MJ ha−1 and 21,036.57 MJ ha−1, respectively, and the EUE was calculated as 0.59, which shows that the production system is highly energy-intensive. Machinery, pesticides, electricity, and diesel were the highest energy inputs, indicating that the system depends on these inputs; consequently, the contribution of renewable energy sources to energy use was very limited. The net energy was negative, indicating the poor energy performance of the system, and total GHG emissions were 1806.6 kg CO2‑eq ha−1, while electricity had the highest share of over 80% in GHG emissions. The emission intensity was 5.2 kg CO2‑eq ha−1 of output, and therefore, the findings suggest that there are three priority areas for improving energy and environmental outcomes in almond production in Türkiye: improving irrigation efficiency, optimizing nitrogen management, and increasing the share of renewable energy sources.